Assuming that you have faithfully attended class, carefully read all the assigned chapters and texts as scheduled, taken good thorough notes and regularly reviewed it all to keep it fresh in your memory, you should be almost ready to take an essay exam. If you have never taken an essay exam in a college level history class this may be a bit of a shock for you. Essay exams can take a little getting used but they have the great advantage, within certain perameters, of allowing you to express yourself about what you know. The following information is intended to explain what is expected of you in an essay exam and what you can do to prepare for and perform at your best in them.
Essay exams typically consist of two different types of questions: Identifications and Essays. Both of these types of questions require you to write, using proper English and sentence structure, to answer the question in your own words from your knowledge of history.
If you followed the practices explained in the "Taking Effective Class Notes" section of this web site you should be a long way toward being ready to take an exam. Keeping up with your reading schedule, taking good notes in class and reviewing and revising them on a regular basis should mean that you have the background preparation for writing your essays and have less studying left to do to prepare for an exam, but that does not mean that your work is finished. Before taking the exam you should do a little specialized studying just for the exam. Your goal should be to make yourself comfortable with the issues and facts, and build your confidence in yourself for the exam.
Now its time to take the exam. The following advice are things to keep in mind as you take the exam in order to help you do your best work and attain the highest grades.
Essay questions frequently use a set of terms which have specific meanings for those who are experienced in
taking this type of exam. Below are a list of words commonly used in formulating essay questions along with a brief
explanation of what you are expected to do when answering the question. Be aware that a single question may contain
two or more of these terms and a complete response would require you to do what is necessary for each of them.
For example, "Compare" and "Contrast" are frequently joined together as one term indicating
that you should examine similarities and differences of the subject of the question.
| Compare: | Examine qualities, or characteristics, to discover resemblances, "Compare" is usually stated as "compare with." You are to emphasize similarities, although differences may be mentioned. |
| Contrast: | Stress dissimilarities, differences, ore unlikeness of things, qualities, events, or problems. |
| Criticize: | Express your judgment of correctness or merit. Discuss the limitations and good points of contributions of the plan or work in question. |
| Define: | Definitions call for concise, clear, authoritative meanings. Details are not required but limitations of the definitions should be briefly cited. You must keep in mind the class to which a thing belongs and whatever differentiates the particular object from all others in the class. |
| Describe: | In a descriptive answer, you should recount, characterize, sketch or relate in narrative form. |
| Diagram: | For a question which specified a diagram you should present a drawing, chart, plan, or graphic representation in your answer. Generally the student is also expected to label the diagram and in so doing, provide an explanation or description. |
| Discuss: | The term DISCUSS, which appears often in essay questions, directs you to examine, analyze carefully, and present considerations pro and con regarding the problems or items involved. This type of question calls for a complete and detailed answer. |
| Enumerate: | The word ENUMERATE specifies a list or outline form of reply. In such questions, you should recount, one by one, in concise form, the points required. |
| Evaluate: | In an evaluation question you are expected to prepare a careful appraisal of the problem, stressing both advantages and limitations. Evaluation implies authoritative and, to a lesser degree, personal appraisal of both contributions and limitations. |
| Explain: | In explanatory answers it is imperative that you clarify, elucidate, and interpret the material you present. In such an answer it is best to state the "how" and "why", reconcile any differences in opinion or experimental results, and where possible, state causes. The idea is to make plain the conditions which give rise to whatever you are examining. |
| Illustrate: | A question which asks you to illustrate usually requires you to explain or clarify your answer to the problem by presenting figure, picture, or concrete example. |
| Interpret: | An interpretation question is similar to one requiring explanation. You are expected to translate, exemplify, solve, or comment upon the subject and usually to give your judgment or reaction to the problem. |
| Justify: | When you are instructed to justify you answer you must prove or show grounds for decisions. In such an answer, evidence should be presented in convincing form. |
| List: | Listing is similar to enumeration. You are expected in such questions to present an itemized series or tabulation. Such answers should always be given in concise form. |
| Outline: | An outline answer is an organized description. You should give main points and essential supplementary materials, omitting minor details, and present the information in a systematic arrangement or classification. |
| Prove: | A question which requires proof is one which demands confirmation or verification. In such discussions you should establish something with certainty by evaluating and citing experimental evidence or by logical reasoning. |
| Relate: | In a question which asks you to show the relationship or to relate, your answer should emphasize connections and associations in descriptive form. |
| State: | In questions which direct you to specify, give, state, or present you are called upon to express the high points in brief, clear, narrative form. Details and usually illustrations or examples may be omitted. |
| Trace: | When a question asks you to trace a course of events, you are to give a description of progress, historical sequence, or development from the point of origin, such narratives may call for probing or for deductions. |
The following are guidelines as to what I expect from student essays in order to attain specific grade levels. Consider what is expected of you to attain the grade you desire and what you need to do to meet those expectations. Aim high, you may never know what you can do if you don't try hard.
| A - | Understands the issue, is well organized, exhibits extensive knowledge of the subject, communicates information clearly, well reasoned and supported perspective |
| B - | Understands the issue, good organization, adequate knowledge of the subject, some omissions and errors, generally clear communication, presents and argues a point of view |
| C - | Near to the issue, lacks organization, acceptable knowledge of the subject, omissions and errors common, muddled communication, may present a point of view with little support |
| D - | Not to the point of the question, little knowledge of the subject - few specific examples, frequent errors, inadequate organization, unclear writing, no thesis or argument presented |
| F - | Misses the point of the question completely, little to no knowledge of the subject, numerous and recurrent factual errors, inadequate organization, obscure writing, no point of view |
The following are examples of different essays which reflect adequate and inadequate responses to questions. The source for these examples is Jules R. Benjamin's A Student's Guide to History, which provides a great deal of practical advice on a wide variety of subjects for history students. Note the differences between these essays and consider which ones are the best answers to the questions. While some of these answers are clearly better than others please be advised that I do not necessarily consider any of them to be outstanding or excellent examples of an essay. Which examples most closely resemble the type of essay you might write in class?
A well-written essay answer is a combination of (1) adequate knowledge of the subject, (2) clear
thinking about the points to be covered, (3) well-structured sentences, and (4) complete understanding of the question.
Following are two answers to a sample essay question on modern Chinese history. The first answer is very well written
and deals successfully with the four requirements listed. The second answer is very poor and meets none of these
requirements.
Discuss the origins of the Chinese Civil War of 1945-1949. How did the differing political programs of the two contenders affect the outcome of that conflict?
The origins of the 1945-1949 Civil War can be traced back to the rise of Chinese nationalism
in the late nineteenth century. Out of the confusion of the Warlord period that followed the overthrow of the Manchu
dynasty in 1911, two powerful nationalist movements arose one reformist and the other revolutionary. The reformist
movement was the Kuomintang (KMT), founded by Sun Yat-sen. It was based on a mixture of republican, Christian,
and moderate socialist ideals and inspired by opposition to foreign domination. The revolutionary movement was
that of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), founded in 1921, whose goal was a communist society but whose immediate
program was to organize the working class to protect its interests and to work for the removal of foreign "imperialist"
control.
Although these two movements shared certain immediate goals (suppression of the Warlords and resistance to foreign
influence), they eventually fell out over such questions as land reform, relations with the Soviet Union, the role
of the working class, and the internal structure of the KMT. (The CCP operated within the framework of the more
powerful KMT during the 1920s.)
By the 1930s, when Chiang Kai-shek succeeded Sun, the CCP was forced out of the KMT. By that time the CCP had turned
to a program of peasant revolution inspired by Mao Tse-tung. A four-year military struggle (1930-1934) between
the two movements for control of the peasantry of Kiangsi Province ended in the defeat but not destruction of the
CCP.
The Japanese invasion of Manchuria (1931) and central China (1936-1938) helped salvage the fortunes of the CCP.
By carrying out an active guerrilla resistance against the Japanese, in contrast to the more passive role of the
KMT (which was saving its army for a future battle with the Communists), the CCP gained the leading position in
the nationalist cause.
In the post-World War II period, the CCP's land reform program won strong peasant support, whereas the landlord-backed
KMT was faced with runaway corruption and inflation, which eroded its middle-class following. The military struggle
between 1945 and 1949 led to the defeat of the demoralized KMT army and the coming to power of the CCP.
The Kuomintang had a stronger army than the Communists, but the Communists won the civil war
and took over the country. Their political program, communism, was liked by the peasants because they didn't own
any land and paid high taxes.
China was based on the Confucian system, which was very rigid and led to the Manchu dynasty being overthrown. The
Chinese didn't like being dominated by foreigners, and Sun Yat-sen founded the Kuomintang to unite China. He believed
in the Three People's Principles. At first he cooperated with the Chinese Communists, but later Chiang Kai-shek
tried to destroy communism because he was against it. Communism was not in favor of the wealthy people.
The Communists wanted a revolution of the peasants and gave them land. They also killed the landlords. Chiang Kai-shek
worried more about the Communists than about the Japanese invasion. The Japanese looked to conquer China and make
it a part of their empire. Chiang Kai-shek wanted to fight the Communists first.
After World War II the Chinese Communists attacked Manchuria and took over a lot of weapons. They fought the KMT
army. The KMT army lost the battles, and Chiang Kai-shek was chased to Taiwan, where he made a new government.
The Communists set up their own country, and their capital was Peking. That way the Communists won the Chinese
Civil War.
Let's see the differences between the poor and the well-written essays in regard to each of the four requirements
for a well-written answer.
1. Adequate knowledge of the subject. The poor answer fails to indicate adequate knowledge in several ways. It
is too brief, omitting many important facts. It describes the political programs of the two contending parties
in the most vague terms. It refers to
if the CCP only as the Chinese Communists, leaving the impression that they were a loose grouping of like-minded
individuals rather than a strong, well-disciplined political organization. It does not even mention the name of
the most famous leader of the CCP-Mao Tse-tung. Chiang Kai-shek, the leader of the KMT, is mentioned, but there
is no mention of his political program or beliefs, other than that he was opposed to communism. Another serious
defect is the lack of chronology. The answer jumps back and forth between earlier and later periods, and no dates
are given for major events.
The well-written answer illustrates a good knowledge of the subject matter. The origins, philosophies, leaders,
and relationship of the two contending parties are clearly described. This answer brings in related issues such
as nationalism, Warlords, guerrilla warfare against Japan, corruption, and inflation, thus indicating a broader
knowledge of the historical context in which the Chinese Civil War developed. The chronology is very clear, with
events proceeding in proper time sequence and with all major events identified by date.
2. Clear thinking about the points to be covered. The poor answer is not organized. Note that the paragraphs do
not make separate points and that each succeeding paragraph does not further develop the theme of the essay. Paragraph
one is a conclusion rather than an introduction. The second paragraph goes back to the founding of the KMT, but
instead of discussing the origins of the hostility between it and the CCP, it merely states that hostility came
into existence. The third paragraph begins by introducing the CCP (though not by name). However, it does not expand
on the CCP's programs and points of conflict with the KMT, but instead abruptly changes the focus of events and
the time frame by introducing the Japanese invasion of China, which the last sentence of the paragraph only vaguely
relates to the question. The last paragraph, instead of drawing conclusions about the causes of the Communist victory
in the Civil War, merely states that it occurred.
The well-written answer, on the other hand, uses each paragraph to make a separate important point, and each succeeding
paragraph further develops the theme of the essay. Paragraph one sets out the political programs of the two groups
and the historical context in which the movements originated. The second paragraph explains the beginning of the
conflict in the 1920s. Paragraph three discusses that conflict in relation to the Chinese peasantry during the
early 1930s. The fourth paragraph discusses the development of the conflict in relation to the Japanese invasion
of the late 1930s. The final paragraph summarizes the effects of the conflicts and of postwar developments on the
outcome of the Civil War.
3. Well-structured sentences. Many sentences in the poor answer are badly constructed either because they are awkward
or because what they say adds nothing to the answer. Some of the awkward phrases are "the Communists won the
Civil War and took over the country"; 'communism was liked by the peasants"; "China was based on
the Confucian system ; communism was not in favor of the wealthy people"; "the Japanese looked to conquer
China"; "the Communists set up their own country." These phrases cause the sentences to be unclear,
and they keep the student from getting his or her point across. The other major defect in sentence structure is
repetitious or irrelevant sentences and phrases. These are "Chiang Kai-shek tried to destroy communism because
he was against it"; "they fought the KMT army"; "that way the Communists won the Chinese Civil
War." The sentences of the well-written answer, on the other hand, are clear, and each adds new material to
the essay.
4. Complete understanding of the question. The poor answer does not deal with the central issue of the question-the
political programs of the KMT and the CCP. It notes that the KMT was founded on the Three People's Principles,
but it does not explain what these were. Of the CCP, it says that there was a belief in communism (which is obvious)
and peasant revolution (which is vague). These are the only references to political programs in the entire answer!
It is obvious that the writer of this answer failed to understand that the central focus of the question was on
political philosophy.
The well-written answer is directed to the central issue of political programs and begins on that very point. The
remainder of the answer makes clear the relationship of political programs to the origins and course of the Chinese
Civil War as called for in the first sentence of the question.
Here is another good answer to an essay question. Note how it meets the four requirements set out above.
Describe Russian expansion across Siberia. What factors facilitated this expansion? How did it compare with the expansion of the United States across North America?
Russian expansion to the east began in the sixteenth century from the area around Moscow, which
had become the center of a powerful state under Ivan the Terrible (1533-1584). Eastern expansion was spearheaded
by the Cossacks, who were in most instances former peasants who had fled to the frontiers of the Russian state
to avoid serfdom. There they became shepherds, hunters, and expert horsemen. Some joined robber bands and preyed
on commerce. Eventually they took up arms in service to the Russian nobility and fought against the Siberian Tatars,
Moslem peoples who raided Russia from across the Ural Mountains. In a series of wars against the Tatars, Cossack
forces fought and marched across northern Eurasia, covering a distance even greater than that across the United
States, and reached the Pacific Ocean before the middle of the seventeenth century.
This vast territory was conquered in a brief period of time because of several favorable conditions. In a wide
band of territory stretching eastward, the climate was similar to that of European Russia. Within this forested
zone there were no major natural obstacles. The mountains were low and the rivers navigable. The native population
was small and no powerful tribes existed. None had armaments equal to those of the Cossacks.
There are several similarities between Russian and United States continental expansion. The great extent of the
two expansions is similar, as is the influence of the frontier experience on both cultures. Continental expansion
in both cases engulfed (and often destroyed) weaker native peoples and incorporated their lands into the expanding
nation rather than holding them as colonies. In both cases an important economic incentive was the fur trade and
the ability of trappers to use the extensive river systems to send their pelts to market.
In some respects, however, the expansionist experiences were different. The Russian advance was much more rapid
than the American. Cossacks began to push eastward about the same time (late sixteenth century) as the first English
settlers came to America. By the mid-seventeenth century, however, the Russians had reached the Pacific Ocean while
the settlers in North America had yet to cross the Appalachian Mountains. Although the Russian advance was swift,
settlement of the land was sparse compared to the slower American expansion. In 1763, all across the newly conquered
expanse of Siberia there were only 400,000 Russians. At about the same date, the much smaller territory of the
thirteen English colonies in North America contained about 1.7 million settlers.
The two expansions were similar in scope and in the nature of the native forces encountered. They were, however,
different in content. Siberia is to this day a rather backward, isolated, and thinly populated region of the Soviet
Union, whereas the lands that lie beyond the early eastern settlements of the United States today hold the greater
part of the population and economic resources of the nation.
The next two examples are typical and reasonably complete answers to Identification questions. Consider how each deals with the five elements of an identification answer.
The New South was a program calling for the replacement of cotton as "King" of the Southern economy by diversified agriculture and industrial production. Edwin DeLeon and Henry W. Grady, starting in the 1870s, championed the goals calling for introduction of more food crops, mining, lumbering, steel and textile production. The industries introduced, however, were closely related to the Old South's cotton and tobacco growing or extraction of raw materials and failed to significantly improve the economy of the South which remained an impoverished region of the nation
Once the exam is over, graded and returned to you there is one more task you should set for yourself. Read through your exam, paying special attention to the comments and suggestions added in by the grader. Compare your essay with your notes and the textbook passages on the relevant topics; what you left out, what mistakes you made, what might have been stated more clearly. Consider ways to improve your performance on the next exam. If you don't understand why you received the grade you did or believe the grader evaluated your exam inaccurately, develop a specific set of questions or comments about your exam to discuss with your instructor outside class. Bring your exam and class notes with you to your appointment.
The following links will take you to other resources with advice about note taking, reading, studying and taking exams in History and other college level courses.