Synagogue
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“The synagogue is the most important institution in Judaism. It has had a decisive influence not only on Judaism but also on organized religion as a whole. The Jews had a genius for organizing the form of communal worship that has been adapted by both Christianity and Islam.” These words were written in 1913 by C. Toy in his Introduction to the History of Religions. Spiritually, the synagogue derives from the Tent of the Tabernacle and, historically, from the First and then the Second Temple in Jerusalem. However, it was not until the first century C.E. that the synagogue suddenly emerged as a well established institution. The term synagogue is a Greek word meaning House of Worship, House of Assembly, and House of Meeting. With the destruction by the Romans of the Second Temple in 70 C.E. and the dispersion of the Jews, the synagogue emerged as the center of both the social and the religious life of the Jewish people in the Diaspora. Later on the size and design of the synagogue was dictated by the laws of host lands, the financial status and size of the supporting congregation, and the habits of neighbors other than Jews. The prime influence, however, has always been the words of the Torah, which instructs its readers to create the space for worship “in the beauty of holiness.”
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            The first requirement of the sanctuary within the synagogue is to provide a house for the Torah scroll or scrolls. In Ashkenazi synagogues, this is usually in the form of an enclosure or closet called the aron kodesh (holy ark). The scroll within the ark is covered by a cloth mantle. In Sephardi houses of worship in Islamic lands, the scroll is often kept in a tik—a cylindrical encasement placed in a wall niche, or on a table in the center of the hall. Jews worshiping in Sephardi synagogues in Europe use a me’il (cover) for the Torah scroll when it is not in use. A reader’s desk is placed in front of the ark and sometimes below the floor level or on the bimah (Greek for raised platform). There is no altar in a synagogue, as that is the term used for the place for sacrifice in the Jerusalem Temple. It became the custom in Europe and today in America to hang a fine fabric curtain, called a parokhet, in front of the aron kodesh. This is symbolic of the cloths that made up the Tent of the Tabernacle. A seven-branched menorah stands on the bimah and is lit at the beginning of the Sabbath. The aron kodesh remains the focal point of the sanctuary. Above it hangs the ner tamid (eternal light) that usually burns continuously as a symbol of God’s presence. No matter how simple or how elaborate the housing, it is to the Torah, the Scroll of the Law, that all respect is given. Therefore, the ornaments fashioned for the care and adornment of the scroll are of greatest interest, workmanship, and value. The staves (azei hayyim) upon which the parchment of the scroll is fastened are often carved or inlaid in beautiful patterns. The binder that holds the two rolls together will be of rich fabric usually joined by a fine silver clasp. A yad, or pointer, is hung from a chain stored around one of the stave ends when not being used. Such a pointer is required to maintain the sanctity of the scroll by preventing the human hand, which contains natural oils that would destroy ink and stain leather, from touching the surface. Pointers are traditionally of silver, but some beautiful examples are made of gold, ivory, wood, and even glass.
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            Major differences are evident in Sephardi and Ashkenazi customs regarding Torah scroll housing and the use of ornaments. Each type of ornament is not only decorative but useful. A binder is placed around the tightly rolled leather. Sephardi storage of scrolls does not usually require binders and ornaments. Aside from a tik, a tent-like cloth cover may be used when a scroll is placed in a niche for storage. The Ashkenazi mantle is tubular, open at the top for the staves to run through. The stave ends are then covered by rimmonim (Hebrew for pomegranate because of their shape). The rimmonim are often hung with bells that sound as the Torah is carried to and from the ark, calling special attention to that part of the service. Some scrolls are topped by a keter (crown) of precious metal in place of rimmonim. In the Ashkenazi tradition only, crowns of the eighteenth century in Italy were made in such a way that the rimmonim could be used together with the crown. Finally, a tas (breastplate or shield) is hung from the staves by a metal chain. Since more than one Torah scroll is often kept in the synagogue ark, it became the custom from the late middle ages to indicate on each scroll the occasion or festival for which it was to be used. The shield is a reminder of the breastplate worn by the High Priest of Solomon’s Temple (Exodus 28:15: “And thou shalt make a breastplate of judgment . . . and thou shalt set in it settings of stones: carnelian, topaz, smarago, carbuncle, sapphire, emerald, jacinth, agate, amethyst, beryl, onyx and jasper inclosed in gold settings.”).

            In modern times, additional articles appear in the synagogue, such as memorial plaques setting down the calendar dates for yahrzeit (memorial prayers commemorating the day of death of a loved one), and a special memorial light for the six million Jews killed in the Holocaust. In the construction of earlier synagogues both in the Holy Land and the diaspora, an esrat nashim (women’s gallery or women’s court) was provided for the separation of men and women. That is generally true of all such structures originally created as synagogues. In buildings adapted for Orthodox worship, in order to provide adequate separation, a curtain called a mehitzah  is hung behind where the women sit.
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            It is generally observed that there are no figural representations within the sanctuary, either of animals or humans, in keeping with the spirit of Jewish law: “Thou shalt not make unto thee a graven image nor any manner of likeness from the heaven above the earth, beneath, or in the water under the earth.” This text is clearly a prohibition directed against idol worship. However, there are numerous examples of both human and animal depictions on Jewish ceremonial objects, even those used to ornament the Torah scroll, in most collections. In compliance with both the letter and spirit of the Law, Jewish sculpture in relief and in the round of the completely articulated figure is forbidden. Even when we clearly recognize the figures of Moses, Aaron, David, Solomon, and Miriam on ritual Ashkenazi artifacts, we note on close inspection of very old pieces that a portion of the face has been mutilated, usually by having the nose chipped off. This renders the figure incomplete and therefore permissible, according to many accepted rabbinical authorities.

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